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Adulteration of Medicinal Botanicals: Challenges and Sustainable Solutions

Written by Parris M. Kidd, PhD

Published December 19, 2024
Last Updated December 19, 2024

Quality Matters is a monthly column by Parris M. Kidd, PhD, designed to inform consumers and practitioners about supplement purity, efficacy, ingredients, manufacturing, and legal requirements. The views expressed in this piece are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect those of INM.

When people buy herbal or botanical supplements, they expect the contents to match the claims on the label. Unfortunately, this is often not the case. Botanical products may contain substances that look like the stated ingredient but lack the same properties and—in many cases—provide little or no medicinal benefit. This is adulteration.

Adulteration of foods, spices, and medicinal botanicals has been a persistent issue throughout history, driven primarily by greed. Today, the problem is compounded by declining sustainability—a global reduction in the availability of authentic plants and their active ingredients. This column explores botanical adulteration and highlights potential sustainability solutions.

Botanical adulteration is widespread

Ginkgo leaves and glass containers with powder on marble counter

Botanicals have become a very big business, with herbal medicine sales exceeding $216 billion globally in 2023.¹ Medicinal mushroom sales exceeded $28 billion. Algae production is also growing rapidly. Certain lichens (commingled algae–fungi) are used for usnic acid, which generated about $150 million in 2023.

As demand for botanicals continues to grow, so does the risk of adulteration. The American Botanical Council (ABC) has worked against adulteration for decades. In early 2024, the Royal Society of Chemistry published ABC’s findings on the adulteration of five popular herbals in the United States: ginkgo, turmeric, echinacea, elderberry, and black cohosh.² Researchers Nilufer Orhan, Stefan Gafner, and Mark Blumenthal defined adulteration as “accidental or intentional deviations in declarations of botanical ingredient identity, strength, composition, geographic origin, or production methods from the named or implied claims made for a drug, dietary/food supplement, spice, or food, or an ingredient to be used in such goods.”

Various chromatographic, spectrometric, and spectroscopic analytical methods reliably detect adulteration. Although DNA sequencing is occasionally used, it is only effective when DNA is preserved during preparation. Many authentic plant extracts undergo processes that remove DNA.

Compiling botanical composition data from 78 scientific publications, the ABC researchers reviewed information on hundreds of herb samples purchased from various retail outlets or ingredient producers. Their findings revealed significant levels of adulteration: More than 56 percent of ginkgo leaf samples were adulterated, along with 42 percent of black cohosh rhizome, 28.5 percent of echinacea root/herb, 17 percent of elderberry, and 16.5 percent of turmeric root/rhizome. Notably, herbal products licensed as medicines in Europe were less frequently adulterated than those regulated as dietary supplements in the United States.

Although many adulterants in herbals aren’t toxic, they dilute active ingredients, reducing effectiveness. For example, most adulterated ginkgo samples contained added flavonoids from cheaper plant sources, which are generally not harmful but unlikely to work as well as the ginkgo ingredient.² Echinacea adulteration mainly involved substituting Echinacea species other than Echinacea purpurea and plant parts other than the root—some of which may have been unintentional. Black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) was most typically mixed with other Actaea species, and elderberry adulterants included black rice, purple carrot, and other Sambucus species.

However, there are well-documented cases of herbal products adulterated with toxic substances. For example, lead, notorious for its toxicity to both adults and children, has been added as lead chromate to turmeric powder and marigold powder, which is used as a source of the nutrients lutein and zeaxanthin.² Fortunately, reputable supplement manufacturers routinely conduct heavy metal testing, which detects contaminants like lead, cadmium, arsenic, and mercury.

It’s also worth noting that California’s Proposition 65 (Prop 65) imposes stringent lead limits. Since nearly all botanical ingredients are sold in the California market, Prop 65 gives suppliers and manufacturers more reason to keep lead out of their products.

ABC’s groundbreaking Botanical Adulterants Prevention Program

Colorful banded caterpillar becomes a chrysalis hanging from tree

The adulteration of botanicals continues to be a potentially dangerous practice. To address herbal adulteration, the American Botanical Council (ABC) developed the Botanical Adulterants Prevention Program, or BAPP, in collaboration with the American Herbal Pharmacopoeia and National Center for Natural Products Research at the University of Mississippi.³ ABC described the BAPP as “an international consortium of nonprofit professional organizations, analytical laboratories, research centers, industry trade associations, industry members, and other parties with interest in herbs and medicinal plants.”

The BAPP advises industry, researchers, health professionals, government agencies, the media, and the public about the various challenges related to adulterated botanical ingredients sold in international commerce.

Since its inception in 2010, the BAPP has produced six to eight peer-reviewed publications per year, written by recognized experts. These reports document the adulteration of specific ingredients and evaluate lab testing methods to authenticate legitimate ingredients and detect undeclared adulterants. As of December 2024, BAPP’s website lists adulteration bulletins for 29 botanicals and 16 laboratory guidance documents.³

In late 2024, the BAPP released its first bulletin on a fungal botanical: the cordyceps mushroom.⁴ Known for its near-mythic status in Traditional Chinese medicine, cordyceps has captured attention in modern clinical research, showing potential benefits for kidney health and possibly for enhancing exercise performance.⁵ Nicknamed the “zombie mushroom,” cordyceps can parasitize and take over animal hosts.

In the wilds of the Tibetan plateau and elsewhere in the world, the cordyceps species Ophiocordyceps sinensis flourishes within the caterpillar larva of a ghost moth.³ Its vegetative body (mycelium) digests the caterpillar and spreads through the tissue, its fruiting body eventually growing out of the caterpillar’s body. Wild cordyceps are being intensively harvested, and authentic material can cost as much as $50,000 per kilogram (1,000 grams). A continuing high demand for cordyceps invites adulteration.

According to the BAPP bulletin,³ attempts to adulterate cordyceps have included gluing together parts of the caterpillar and fungus or holding them together using wires or sticks. Adulteration in Western markets most often involves adding another mushroom or non-mushroom species, increasing mass by adding a considerable amount of the material on which the mushroom is grown (such as brown rice), or adding undeclared “filler” that is not biologically active. In some cases, lead has been deliberately added to increase the ingredient’s weight (density) and, consequently, its commercial value.

The cordyceps situation is steadily improving. While the fruiting body has traditionally been its most prized part, recent clinical trials have also shown promise for the mycelium.⁴^,⁶ Both mycelia and fruiting bodies can now be commercially produced without relying on caterpillars—a development that will hopefully reduce pressure on wild populations.

Unfortunately, numerous other botanicals are still under significant strain in the wild, as highlighted in many BAPP adulteration bulletins. The BAPP has developed a very helpful procedure for coping with the growing problem of fake botanical ingredients: the BAPP SOP.

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The BAPP Best Practices SOP

The most common type of botanical adulteration is the intentional addition of non-authentic substances or the removal or replacement of authentic substances without the purchaser’s knowledge, typically for economic gain. This practice is often referred to as economic adulteration. ABC characterizes such ingredients as “irreparably defective,” meaning they cannot be fixed, and firmly advocates that these ingredients should be destroyed to protect buyers and consumers.

ABC, therefore, developed the BAPP SOP primarily to address economic adulteration, providing responsible parties in the botanical industry with a practical process for removing irreparably defective ingredients from the supply chain.⁷ The SOP was primarily written by Michael D. Levin in collaboration with ABC’s founder, Mark Blumenthal, and Dr. Stefan Gafner, ABC’s chief science officer, incorporating valuable input from other experts.

The BAPP SOP Guidance applies not only to economically adulterated ingredients but also to components that are misbranded, accidentally adulterated, or contaminated by any means.⁷ It requires the destruction of any ingredient that cannot be lawfully remediated (corrected), ensuring its permanent removal from the supply chain, with no chance to be recycled for resale.

The complete BAPP SOP includes four key components:

A decision tree, presented as a graphic flowchart, to facilitate quality control decision-making
Customizable contract language for industry members
A draft SOP template for recordkeeping and inclusion in Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) documentation
A three-party nondisclosure agreement to protect the interests of buyers, sellers, and analytical laboratories.⁷

The SOP package also features an extensive FAQs section with detailed answers to common questions.⁷ Together with the broader BAPP, the SOP represents a significant contribution to ensuring the integrity of supplements, food, and cosmetic ingredients, marking a major step forward in consumer protection.

Adulteration is linked to difficulties with sustainability

Tree sprouts grow in soil under sunshine

The challenges of minimizing adulteration in herbals used for supplements and food products are deeply intertwined with their sustainability in the wild. As commercial demand continues to increase, harvesting from wild-growing stocks becomes increasingly unsustainable, heightening the risk of adulteration. Across Europe, some 27 medicinal plant species are endangered, vulnerable, or near threatened.⁸ The cordyceps scenario is one example. Another is Indian frankincense, an anti-inflammatory gum resin from the bark of Boswellia serrata and related species.

The oleoresin of Boswellia serrata, primarily produced in India, has been cherished for millennia, particularly for religious ceremonies. Today, there is increasing demand for its use in supplements, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, perfume, and even paints and varnishes. As wild Boswellia trees rapidly diminish, there is a troubling rise in adulteration.⁹

Rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea) is an herbal medicine commonly used in Asia, Europe, and North America to ease physical and mental stress. However, therapeutic applications of this powerful adaptogen are expanding, and overharvesting, climate change, and inconsistent conservation policies are depleting its natural populations. Consequently, adulteration is also increasing.¹⁰

New technologies are improving sustainability

Advances in DNA sequencing are significantly improving plant species identification, simplifying the development of defined stocks for controlled soil cultivation. But some herbs, like rhodiola, do not take well to controlled cultivation. For these botanicals, propagation via liquid micro-cultures (in vitro micropropagation) is a potential option.

In vitro tissue culturing methods are becoming increasingly versatile and effective for herbs. Liquid culture techniques, already standard for many algae, are now being applied to improve sustainability of plants like frankincense and rhodiola.¹¹^,¹² In Romania, this advanced technology is being used to propagate at least 64 threatened plants, with the capacity to generate over one million seedlings from a single original culture within a year.¹³

Integrating in vitro propagation with traditional soil cultivation represents a meaningful step toward a sustainable botanical supply, mitigating ecological challenges such as overharvesting, agricultural land depletion, and climate change to protect valuable plant resources. Along with continued vigilance, these advancements will help counter adulteration and ensure the integrity of botanical products for generations to come.

Footnotes

1
Herbal Medicine Market Size, Share & Industry Analysis, By Form (Powder, Liquid & Gel, and Tablets & Capsules), By Application (Pharmaceutical & Nutraceutical, Food & Beverages, and Personal Care & Beauty Products), and Regional Forecast, 2024-2032. Fortune Business Insights. Updated November 18, 2024. https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/herbal-medicine-market-106320
2
Orhan N, Gafner S, Blumenthal M. Estimating the extent of adulteration of the popular herbs black cohosh, echinacea, elderberry, ginkgo, and turmeric—its challenges and limitations. Nat Prod Rep. (Royal Society of Chemistry). 2024 Aug;41:1604-1621. https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2024/np/d4np00014e
3
American Botanical Council, American Herbal Pharmacopoeia, and National Center for Natural Products Research. Botanical Adulterants Prevention Program. 2024.https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/botanical-adulterants-prevention-program
4
Hobbs C, Upton R, Gafner S. Cordyceps. Botanical Adulterants Prevention Bulletin. October 2024. https://umb.herbalgram.org/media/qs2lhbm0/bapp-babs-cordyceps-102024-v1-final2.pdf
5
Nakamura A, Shinozaki E, Suzuki Y, et al. Effect of the administration of Cordyceps militaris mycelium extract on blood markers for anemia in long-distance runners. Nutrients. 2024 Jun 11;16(12):1835. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16121835
6
Pu F, Li T, Shen C, et al. Fermented Ophiocordyceps sinensis mycelium products for preventing contrast-associated acute kidney injury: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Ren Fail. 2024 Dec;46(1):2300302. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886022X.2023.2300302
7
Botanical Adulterants Prevention Program. Botanical Adulterants Prevention Program (BAPP) Best Practices Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for the Disposal/Destruction of Irreparably Defective Articles. October 2023. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/botanical-adulterants-prevention-program/laboratory-guidance-documents/bapp-sop
8
Allen D, Bilz M, Leaman DJ, Miller RM, Timoshyna A, Window J. European Red List of Medicinal Plants. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. 2014. https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/allen2014
9
McCutcheon A. Boswellia serrata Adulteration. Botanical Adulterants Bulletin. 2018. https://umb.herbalgram.org/media/5ymjxzdi/bapp-babs-boswellia-cc-v2.pdf
10
Bejar E, Upton R, Cardellina II JH. Adulteration of rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea) rhizome and root and extracts.Botanical Adulterants Bulletin. 2017. https://umb.herbalgram.org/media/kvqiswnx/bap-babs-rhodiola-cc-v4-final.pdf
11
Nikam TD, Ghorpade RP, Nitnaware KM, Ahire ML, Lokhande VH, Chopra A. Micropropagation and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic agent boswellic acid production in callus cultures of Boswellia serrata Roxb. Physiol Mol Biol Plants. 2013 Jan;19(1):105-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-012-0137-3
12
Tasheva K, Kosturkova G. The role of biotechnology for conservation and biologically active substances production of Rhodiola rosea: endangered medicinal species. ScientificWorldJournal. 2012:274942. https://doi.org/10.1100/2012/274942
13
Radomir A-M, Stan R, Florea A, Ciobotea C-M, Bănuță FM, Negru M, Neblea MA, Sumedrea DI. Overview of the success of in vitro culture for ex situ conservation and sustainable utilization of endemic and subendemic native plants of Romania. Sustainability. 2023;15(3):2581. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032581

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This article is provided by

The Institute for Natural Medicine, a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization. INM’s mission is to transform health care in the United States by increasing public awareness of natural medicine and access to naturopathic doctors. Naturopathic medicine, with its person-centered principles and practices, has the potential to reverse the tide of chronic illness overwhelming healthcare systems and to empower people to achieve and maintain optimal lifelong health. INM strives to fulfil this mission through the following initiatives:

Education – Reveal the unique benefits and outcomes of evidence-based natural medicine
Access – Connect patients to licensed naturopathic doctors
Research – Expand quality research on this complex and comprehensive system of medicine

About The Author(s)

Dietary Supplement Quality Advisor Writer

Parris M. Kidd, PhD

Parris M. Kidd, PhD, is an advisor for the Quality Matters program and member of INM’s Research Committee. Dr. Kidd, a thought leader in dietary supplement application, has developed and overseen quality programs for multiple supplement brands. He earned his BSc from the University of the West Indies in Jamaica and completed his PhD at the University of California, Berkeley. Dr. Kidd is a steadfast advocate for ensuring product safety and efficacy through rigorous clinical research.

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